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Mohamad Mostafa Nassar
Twitter:@NassarMohamadMR
1. Introduction
A host of recent publications have challenged the traditional view of the development of Islam. For example, Christoph Luxenberg has attempted to show that the Qur’an was drafted in a mixed Aramaic-Arabic tongue and based upon Christian Aramaic texts, contrary to the traditional view of its composition in Arabic or derived from Arabian religious traditions.[1] On the other hand, Yehuda Nevo argued that the religious beliefs of the early Arabs constituted paganism along with ‘a very simple form of monotheism with Judaeo-Christian overtones’.[2]
There is no doubt that the study of early Islamic history is contentious among Western scholars,[3] where agreement about various issues is quite rare. In this kind of a situation, one might expect that the existing documents such as papyri, coins and inscriptions will be taken into account while formulating a hypothesis. Unfortunately, such has not been the case and the result of which is often the proposal of extravagant hypotheses on the origins of Islam.[4]
What makes this situation particularly bizarre is that the Western scholars have access to what can be called a treasure-trove of documentary evidence when compared with other major world religions. Judaeo-Christian scholars studying the earliest Christian artefacts are presently unable to call forward even a single item of documentary evidence from the first one hundred years of Christianity and beyond.[5]
Our aim here is quite modest. It is to simply present the corpus of dated Muslim writings along with their contents from 1-72 AH / 622-691 CE. These writings include inscriptions, coins and papyri. By just going through their content, the reader would be able to establish certain landmarks and conclusions. Why the date 72 AH? This is because when we come to the Marwanid period, the dated Islamic texts become much more numerous and with varied content. After this period the citations from the Qur’an also begin to appear.
The list below is based on Robert Hoyland’s collection[6] with some additions from our side. Youssef Ragheb updated the list of dated documentary evidence by incorporating the latest findings.[7] They are also included in the list.
List Of Dated Muslim Texts From 1-72 AH / 622-691 CE
Various acknowledgements of debt (in Greek and Arabic or Arabic only), Egypt, 20 AH / 641 CE onwards.
Dating formulae: sanat or qaįøÄŹ¾ al-muŹ¾minÄ«n or sanat qaįøÄŹ¾ al-muŹ¾minÄ«n (“year” or “decree/reckoning/jurisdiction of the believers” or “year of decree/reckoning/jurisdiction of the believers”).
Various papyri such as P. Vindob. Inv. A. P. 519 (around 20 AH), P. Berol. 15002 (22 AH), P. Louvre Inv. J. David-Weill 20 (42 AH), P. Louvre Inv. E 7106 (c. 44 AH), P. Camb. UL Inv. Michael Pap. 893 (48 AH), and P. Utah Inv. 520 (57 AH).
Various demand notices and receipts on papyri (in Greek and Arabic or Greek only), Egypt, 22 AH / December 642 CE onwards.
Opening formulae: bism AllÄh / en onomati tou theou (“In the name of God”); bism AllÄh al-raįø„mÄn al-raįø„Ä«m. (“In the name of AllÄh, the Compassionate, the Merciful”); syn theÅ (“With God”).
Papyri ERF No. 552, containing an acknowledgement for receipt of six nomismata by ŹæUbayd ibn ŹæUmar, concludes kai eirÄnÄ soi apo theou (“And the peace from God be upon you”). Papyri ERF Nos. 552-573 are dated between 22 AH and 57 AH (except for 572, which may be later). See papyri PERF 555 (22 AH), PERF 556 (22 AH), PERF 557 (22 AH), and PERF 558 (22 AH).
Arabic Graffito From Muthallath (near Yanbuā), 23 AH / 643-4 CE.
Kataba salmah thalÄthah wa-ŹæishrÄ«n.
Salmah wrote in twenty-three.
Arabic Graffito From QÄŹæ Al-MuŹætadil, N. W. Arabia (Near Al-Hijr), 24 AH / 644 CE.
Bism AllÄh anÄ Zuhayr katabt zaman tuwuffiya ŹæUmar sanat arbaŹæ wa-ŹæishrÄ«n.
In the name of God, I Zuhayr wrote [this] at the time ŹæUmar died in the year twenty-four.
Arabic Graffito From Wadi Khushayba, S. W. Arabia (Near NajrÄn), 29 AH / 650 CE.
Taraįø„įø„ama AllÄh Źæalam YazÄ«d ibn ŹæAbdallÄh al-SalÅ«lÄ« wa-kataba fi JumÄdÄ [kadhÄ] min sanat tisā wa-āishrÄ«n.
May God have mercy on YazÄ«d ibn ŹæAbdallÄh al-SalÅ«lÄ« and he wrote [this] in JumÄdÄ of the year twenty-nine.
Tombstone Of ŹæAbd al-Raįø„mÄn Ibn Khair Al-HajrÄ«, 31 AH / 652 CE.
Bism AllÄh al-raįø„mÄn al-raįø„Ä«m. hadhÄ l-qabr li-ŹæAbd al-Raįø„mÄn Ibn Khair al-įø¤ajrÄ«. Allahumma ighfir lahu wadkhulhi fÄ« raįø„ma minka wa ÄtinÄ maāahu. istaghfir lahu idhÄ qaraāa hÄdha l-kitÄb wa-qul amÄ«n. wa-kutiba hÄdha l-kitÄb fÄ« JumÄdÄ al-Äkhar min sanat iįø„dÄ wa-thalÄthin.
In the name of AllÄh, the Compassionate, the Merciful; this tomb belongs to ŹæAbd al-Raįø„mÄn Ibn Khair al-įø¤ajrÄ«. O AllÄh, forgive him and make him enter into Thy mercy and make us go with him. (passer by) When reading this inscription ask pardon for him (the deceased) and say Amen! This inscription was written in JumÄdÄ II of the year thirty-one.
All bear the legend bism AllÄh (“In the name of God”), sometimes with additional words in Arabic and Persians.
… dhimmat AllÄh wa įøamÄn rasÅ«lih… sanat ithnatayn wa-thalÄthin.
… the protection of God and guarantee of His Messenger… the year thirty two.
All bear the legend lillÄh (“Unto God”).
An Inscription Mentioning The Murder Of ŹæUthmÄn b. ŹæAffÄn, c. 36 AH / 656 CE.
AnÄ Qays al-kÄtib AbÅ« Kutayr. laŹæana AllÄh man qatalaŹæUthmÄn ibn ŹæAffÄn wa aįø„atta qatlahu taqtÄ«lan.
I am Qays, the scribe of AbÅ« Kutayr. Curse of God on [those] who murdered ŹæUthmÄn ibn ŹæAffÄn and [those who] have led to the killing without mercy.
Arabic Inscription On The Darb Zubayda Caravan Route, 40 AH / 660-661 CE.
Raįø„mat AllÄh wa barakatuhu ŹæalÄ ŹæAbd al-Raįø„mÄn bin KhÄlid bin al-ŹæÄs wa kutiba li-sanat arbaāÄ«n.
Allah’s mercy and blessing be upon ŹæAbd al-Raįø„mÄn bin KhÄlid bin al-ŹæÄs, and written in the year forty.
A papyrus in Louvre dealing with business tax, dated 40 AH / 660 CE.
Arabic Inscription On A Dam, Medina, Arabia, Of MuŹæÄwiya, 40ā60 AH / 661ā80.
Bism AllÄh al-raįø„mÄn al-raįø„Ä«m hadhÄ l-sadd li-Źæabd AllÄh MuŹæÄwiya [kadham] amÄ«r al-muāminÄ«n AllÄhumma baraka [kadhÄ] lahu fihi rabb al-samawat [kadhÄ] wa-l-ard banahu [kadhÄ] AbÅ« RaddÄd mawlÄ ŹæAbdallÄh ibn ŹæAbbÄs bi-įø„awl AllÄh wa-quwwatihi wa-qÄma Źæalayhi KathÄ«r ibn al-į¹¢alt wa-AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ.
In the name of God the Compassionate the Merciful, this dam is on behalf of the servant of God MuŹæÄwiya commander of the believers. O God, bless him for it, Lord of the heavens and the earth. AbÅ« RaddÄd client of ŹæAbdallÄh ibn ŹæAbbÄs built it by the power and strength of God, and KathÄ«r ibn al-į¹¢alt and AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ oversaw it.
Greek: abdella Mouaouia amilalmoumnin
Arabic: Źæabd AllÄh MuŹæÄwiya amÄ«r al-muāminÄ«n
Five Arab-Sassanian Coins Of MuŹæÄwiya, Darabgird, year 41 AH / 661-62 CE.
On the obverse is written in Persian Maawia amir i-wruishnikan (“MuŹæÄwiya, commander of the faithful”), and in Arabic bism AllÄh (“In the name of God”).
Greek Inscription In The Baths Of Hammat Gader, 42 AH / 662-63 CE.
In the days of the servant of God MuŹæÄwiya, the commander of the faithful (abdalla Maavia amÄra almoumenÄn), the hot baths of the people there were saved and rebuilt by ŹæAbd AllÄh son of AbÅ« HÄshim, the governor (Abouasemou symboulou), on the fifth of the month of December, on the second day (of the week), in the 6th year of the indiction, in the year 726 of the colony, according to the arabs (kata Arabas) the 42nd year, for the healing of the sick, under the care of Ioannes, the official of Gadara.
A papyrus in Louvre dealing with tax, dated 43 AH / 663 CE.
An Inscription From įø¤isma Plateau Dated 43 AH / 663-664 CE.
Ana Shurayh mawla banÄ« Źæuday bin kŹæab usÄ« bi-barr AllÄh wa al-raįø„m kataba hadha min sanat thalatha wa-arbaŹæÄ«n.
I am Shurayh, mawla of BanÄ« ŹæUday bin KŹæab. I advise devotion to God and kinship. This was written in the year three and forty.
Two Coptic texts On Behalf Of ŹæAmr Ibn Al-ŹæÄs (d. 43 AH / 663 CE) in Pap. BM 1079.
I, Philotheos the ape (village headman, protokometes), son of the late Houri, the man from Tjinela, swear by God Almighty and the well-being of ŹæAmr not to have left out any man in our whole village from fourteen years (up) but to have accounted for him to your lordship. I, Ioustos, the komogrammateus (village scribe), swear by God Almighty and the well-being of āAmr not to have left out any man in our whole village but to have accounted for him to your lordship.
I, Philotheos, together with Esaias, the apes, and together with Apater the priest, the men from the village of Tjinela, we write, swearing by the name of God and the well-being of ŹæAmr not to have left out any man in our village from fourteen years on; if you produce any we have left behind we will put them in our house. Sign of Philotheos the protokometes, he agrees. Sign of Esaias, he agrees. Apater, the humble priest, I agree.
Two Seals From The Time Of MuŹæÄwiya Bin AbÄ« SufyÄn, c. 44 AH / 664 CE.
Among those things ordered by the Commander of the Faithful MuŹæÄwiya to dismiss the amÄ«r ŹæAbd AllÄh bin AmÄ«r from the rule of al-Baį¹£ra.
Three Arab-Sassanian Coins, BÄ«shÄpÅ«r, Years 45 AH / 665 CE and 47 AH / 667 CE.
All bear the legend bism AllÄh al-malik (“In the name of God, the King”).
All bear the legend bism AllÄh rabbÄ« (“In the name of God, my Lord”), sometimes with additional words in Arabic and Persian.
Arabic Graffito From WÄdÄ« Sabil, 46 AH / 666 CE.
Allahumma ighfir li-ŹæAbd AllÄh ibn DayrÄm kutiba li-ŹæarbaŹæa layÄl khalÅ«n min Muįø„arram min sanat sitt wa-arbaŹæÄ«n.
O Allah grant pardon to ŹæAbdalllÄh bin DayrÄm written when four nights had passed of [the month of] Muįø„arram of the year forty-six.
Seven bilingual entagia, Nessana, 54-57 AH / 674-77 CE. Click here to view one of them.
All begin with: Bism AllÄh al-raįø„mÄn al-raįø„Ä«m (“In the name of AllÄh, the Compassionate, the Merciful”).
All bear the legend: Bism AllÄh rabb al-įø„ukm (“In the name of God, the Lord of judgement”).
Arabic Graffito On The Darb Zubayda Caravan Route, 52 AH / 672 CE.
AllÄhumma ighfir li-Hadya ibn AlÄ« ibn Hinayda wa-kutiba li-sanat ithnÄn wa-khamsÄ«n.
O God, forgive Hadya ibn Alī ibn Hinayda, written in the year fifty-two.
P. Vindob. Inv. A. P. 11191 ā A Papyrus About Debt Settlement, 57 AH / 676-677 CE.
…qaįøÄŹ¾ al-muŹ¾minÄ«n.
…decree/reckoning/jurisdiction of the believers.
Inscription On The Dam Built By Caliph MuŹæÄwiya, 58 AH / 678 CE.
HadhÄ l-sadd li-Źæabd AllÄh MuŹæÄwiya amÄ«r al-muāminÄ«n banahuŹæAbd AllÄh ibn į¹¢akhr bidhn AllÄh li-sanat thaman wa khamsÄ«n. Allahumma ighfir li-Źæabd AllÄh MuŹæÄwiya amÄ«r al-muāminÄ«n wa-thabbithu w-unį¹£urhu wa mattiŹæ l-muāminÄ«n bihi. katabaŹæAmr ibn įø¤abbÄb.
This dam [belongs] to servant of God MuŹæÄwiya, commander of the believers. ŹæAbdullÄh b. į¹¢akhr built it with the permission of AllÄh, in the year fifty-eight. O AllÄh, pardon servant of God MuŹæÄwiya, commander of the believers, and strengthen him, and make him victorious, and grant the commander of the believers the enjoyment of it. ŹæAmr b. HabbÄb wrote [it].
Arabic grafitto from al-Murakkab, S. W. Arabia (near Najran), 59 AH / 678-679 CE.
Coin Of Yazīd I, No Place, Year 1 (61 AH / 681 CE).
Obverse has the standard profile of Khusrau II and bears his name; reversal has usual Sassanian iconography (fire altar, stars and crescents etc.), but in the margin is written in Persian “Year one of YazÄ«d”.
Arabic Graffito Near Karbala In Iraq, 64 AH / 683-684 CE.
Bism AllÄh al-raįø„mÄn al-raįø„Ä«m. AllÄh wa-kabbir kabÄ«ran wa-l-įø„amd lillÄh kathÄ«ran. wa subįø„Än AllÄh bukratan wa-asÄ«lan wa-laylan tawÄ«lan Allahumma rabb JibrÄ«l wa-MÄ«kÄāÄ«l wa IsrÄfÄ«l ighfir li-? ibn YazÄ«d al-AsāadÄ« mÄ taqaddama min dhanbihi wa-mÄ ta’akhkhara wa-li-man qÄla amÄ«n amÄ«n rabb al-ŹæÄlamÄ«n. wa-katabat hÄdha l-kitÄb fÄ« ShawwÄl min sanat arbaŹæ wa-sittÄ«n.
In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate. Allah is the greatest Great. May Allah be abundantly thanked and May Allah be praised morning and evening. O Lord of Gabriel, Michael and IsrÄfÄ«l, forgive Layth (?) Ibn Yazid al-AsŹæadi his early sins and the ones that followed and (forgive) whoever says AmÄ«n. AmÄ«n, O Lord of the worlds. I wrote this inscription in (the month of) ShawwÄl in the year sixty-four.
A į¹¬irÄz Inscription From The Time Of Marwan I, 64-65 AH / 683-85 CE.
[ŹæAbd] AllÄh MarwÄn amÄ«r al-muā[min]Ä«n mimmÄ amr…. fÄ« į¹irÄz ifrÄ«qÄ«yya.
[The servant of] God, MarwÄn, Commander of the Faithful. Of what was ordered… in the į¹irÄz of IfrÄ«qÄ«yya.
A Signature Believed To Be Of ŹæAbd Al-Malik B. MarwÄn, Before 65 AH / 685 CE.
AnÄ ŹæAbd al-Malik bin MarwÄn.
I am ŹæAbd al-Malik bin MarwÄn.
An Arabic Papyrus From The John Rylands Library, 65 AH / 684-685 CE.
…al-salÄm [Źæala man attabaŹæ al-huda. wa] kataba AbÄn bin [ fÄ«] [sa]nat khamsa [wa] sittÄ«n.
….and peace be [upon him who follows] [the guidance. And] written by AbÄn bin [
in] [ye]ar five [and] sixty.
Arab-Sassanian Coin Of Salm Bin ZiyÄd, 65 AH / 684-685 CE.
The legend is bism AllÄh, AllÄhu / Akbar (“In the name of God, God is / Great”).
The legend is bism AllÄh al-ŹæazÄ«z (“In the name of God, the Great”).
The legend is bism AllÄh Muįø„ammad rasÅ«l AllÄh (“In the name of God, Muįø„ammad is the Messenger of God”).
An Arab-Sassanian coin of Muį¹£Źæab ibn al-Zubayr, Basra, 66 AH (?) / 685-86 CE.
The legend is muį¹£Źæab įø„asbuhu AllÄh (“Muį¹£Źæab, God is his sufficiency”).
Bilingual GreekāArabic papyrus, release from labour contact, from Nessana, southern Palestine, 67 AH / 687 CE.
Payment of money to release person from employ of al-Aswad ibn ŹæAdÄ«, who then returned part of the payment as alms: į¹£adaqa Źæalayhi bi echarisato.
P. Nessana 77 – Earliest Papyrus Mentioning Dhimma, 60s AH / 680s CE.
This is the earliest datable item of documentary evidence attesting to the use of the term / concept dhimma.
… dhimmat AllÄh wa-dhimmat rasÅ«lihi…… the protection of God and the protection of His messenger…
All have the legend lillÄh al-įø„amd (“Unto God be praise”).
Inscription On A Bridge In Fustat By The Governor ŹæAbd al-ŹæAzÄ«z Ibn MarwÄn, 69 AH / 688-89 CE.
HÄdhihi l-qantara amara bihÄ ŹæAbd al-ŹæAzÄ«z ibn MarwÄn al-amÄ«r. Allahumma bÄrik lahu fÄ« amrihi kullihi wa-thabbit sultÄnahu āalÄ mÄ tardÄ wa-aqarra āaynahu fÄ« nafsihi wa-įø„ashamihi amÄ«n. wa-qÄma bi-binÄ’ihÄ SaŹæd AbÅ« ŹæUthmÄn wa-kataba āAbd al-Raįø„mÄn fÄ« į¹¢afar sanat tisŹæ wa sittÄ«n.
This bridge was commissioned by the governor ŹæAbd al-ŹæAzÄ«z ibn MarwÄn. O God, bless him in his affairs, strengthen his rule as You see fit and cheer him himself and his entourage, amÄ«n. SaŹæd AbÅ« ŹæUthmÄn undertook the building of it, and ŹæAbd al-Raįø„mÄn wrote [this] in į¹¢afar of the year sixty-nine.
Arabic Inscription In A Bronze Can, 69 AH / 688-89 CE.
mimmÄ Źæumila bi-l-Baį¹£ra sanat tisaŹæ wa sittÄ«n barakah min sanŹæah ibn YazÄ«d.
Made in Basra in year sixty-nine, “barakah”, crafted by Ibn YazÄ«d.
An Arab-Sassanian coin of the Kharijite rebel QatarÄ« ibn al-FujÄŹ¾a, BÄ«shÄpÅ«r, 69 AH / 688-89 CE. A coin of QatarÄ« ibn al-FujÄŹ¾a from 75 AH / 694-695 CE is shown here.
It bears the typically Kharijite slogan lÄ įø„ukm illÄ lillÄh (“Judgement belongs to God alone”), prefixed with bism AllÄh. And written in Persian: “Servant of God, Ktri, commander of the faithful”.
Anonymous Arab-Sassanian Coin From KirmÄn, 70 AH / 689 CE.
Obverse field: The legend in Middle Persian reads MHMT PGTAMI Y DAT (“Muįø„ammad is the Messenger of God”). Obverse margin: bism AllÄh walÄ« / al-Amr (“In the name of God, the Master / of affairs”).
An Arab-Sassanian coin of the Umayyad governer of Basra KhÄlid ibn ŹæAbd AllÄh, BÄ«shÄpÅ«r, 71 AH / 690-91 CE.
The legend is bism AllÄh Muįø„ammad rasÅ«l AllÄh (“In the name of God, Muįø„ammad is the messenger of God”).
Tombstone Of ŹæAbÄssa Bint Juraij, 71 AH / 691 CE.
In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The greatest calamity of the people of IslÄm (ahl al-IslÄm) is that which has fallen them on the death of Muįø„ammad the Prophet; may God grant him peace. This is the tomb of ŹæAbÄssa daughter of Juraij (?), son of (?).
May clemency, forgiveness and satisfaction of God be on her. She died on Monday, fourteen days having elapsed from Dhul-QaŹædah of the year seventy-one, confessing that there is no god but God alone without partner and that Muįø„ammad is His servant and His apostle, may God grant him peace.
2. Why Do The Dated Texts Appear From Early 20s AH?
The official Islamic calendar (or the hijri calendar) is lunar with year one coinciding with the year 622 CE, the date of Prophet Muįø„ammad’s migration (i.e., hijra) from Mecca to Medina. This era does not begin on the date of Muįø„ammad’s arrival at Medina, but on the first day of the lunar year in which that event took place, which is reckoned to coincide with the 16th July 622 CE.
Years counted according to the era of the hijra were introduced by the caliph ŹæUmar bin al-Khaį¹į¹Äb in 17 AH / 638 CE.[8] Early Islamic historian ibn JarÄ«r al-į¹¬abarÄ« (d. 310 AH / 923 CE) provides a number of reports giving three causes underpinning the establishment of the calendar,
1. the necessity of having letters dated precisely,
2. the ability to record debts with repayment dates, and 3. following in the tradition of the surrounding empires.[9]
This conforms neatly with the earliest documentary evidence comprising acknowledgement of debts, demand notices, contracts and receipts – the type of written documents that are the first to be explicitly dated – and also the Qurāanic injunction of 2:282 commanding debt contracts be recorded in writing.
ŹæUmar signalled the importance of an Islamic era and declared that the hijra of Prophet Muįø„ammad would be used to set the official Muslim calendar. Since counting of years according to the era of hijra began in 17 AH / 638 CE, and that the official edict takes some time to percolate through the empire, it is not surprising that dated Muslim texts appear slightly later, that is, from 20 AH / 641 CE onwards, showing the early adoption of the hijri calendar.
Based exclusively on the earliest documentary evidence available, there can be no doubt that the calendar system adopted by the early Muslims, however it may have been designated, began in the year 622 CE (i.e., year 1). Excluding Arabic-only papyri, there are dozens of Greek, Greek-Coptic and Greek-Arabic fiscal papyri showing a hijra year in addition to a Byzantine indiction.[10]
Likewise, similar examples can be found in Christian Syriac manuscripts showing hijra dates alongside the Seleucid era.[11] There is also a unique triple dated early inscription from 662 CE, showing a hijra date, Byzantine indiction and year of the colony of Gadara.[12] When the dates of all the aforementioned documents are independently calculated and calibrated against each other, they almost always correspond to 622 CE / 1 AH.[13]
Muslim Studies on Qurāanic Manuscripts
Examining Ibn Masudās reaction to Qurāan preservation efforts
No. of Surahs in the Mushaf of Ibn Masud
No. of Surahs in Ubayyās Mushaf
How many Surahs in Ubayyās Mushaf?
References
[1] C. Luxenberg, Die syro-aramƤische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur EntschlĆ¼sselung der Koransprache, 2000, Das Arabische Book: Berlin.
[2] Y. Nevo & J. Koren, Crossroads To Islam: The Origins Of The Arab Religion And The Arab State, 2003, Prometheus Books: New York, pp. 10-11. Also see their earlier works Y. D. Nevo, “Towards A Prehistory Of Islam”, Jerusalem Studies In Arabic And Islam, 1994, Volume 17, pp. 108-141; J. Koren & Y. Nevo, “Methodological Approaches To Islamic Studies”, 1991, Der Islam, Volume 68, pp. 87-107.
[3] The most commonly quoted controversial Western scholars who attempted to reconstruct the early Islamic history are Patricia Crone and Michael Cook (Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, 1977, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge) and John Wansbrough (Qurāanic Studies: Sources & Methods Of Scriptural Interpretation, 1977, Oxford University Press; idem., The Sectarian Milieu: Content & Composition Of Islamic Salvation History, 1978, Oxford University Press).
[4] Even those sober publications which do make extensive use of the early dated corpus of evidence can inadvertently ignore some vital pieces of evidence. For example, whilst commending Beatrice Gruendlerās thorough use of the early dated Arabic texts in her volume The Development Of The Arabic Scripts: From The Nabatean Era To The First Islamic Century According To Dated Texts [1993, Harvard Semitic Series No. 43, Scholars Press: Atlanta (GA)], Healey and Rex-Smith note that vital pieces of palaeographic evidence are still absent. Specifically, with regard to coins, glass weights and stamps they lament, āfor how much longer will these essential pieces of palaeographic evidence be forgotten?ā See J. F. Healey and G. Rex-Smith, “Beatrice Gruendler, The Development Of The Arabic Scripts: From The Nabatean Era To The First Islamic Century According To Dated Texts”, Journal Of Semitic Studies, 1995, Volume XL, No. 1, p. 177.
[5] L. W. Hurtado, The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts And Christian Origins, 2006, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.: Grand Rapids (MI), pp. 2-4. The earliest extant Christian inscriptions are from the third century CE. The earliest extant example of a Christian Church is from the third century CE. Hurtado says [p. 3]:
ā¦ Among these pre-Constantinian manuscripts, a small but growing number are dated as early as the second century, and these second-century manuscripts now constitute the earliest extant artifacts of Christianity.
For a comprehensive overview of the documentary evidence of earliest Christianity see, G. F. Snyder, Ante-Pacem: Archaeological Evidence Of Church Life Before Constantine, 2003, Revised Edition, Mercer University Press: Georgia (USA).
[6] R. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam – 13, The Darwin Press, Inc.: Princeton (NJ), pp. 688-695; More recently, he has added some more sources to this corpus, see R. Hoyland, “New Documentary Texts And The Early Islamic State”, Bulletin Of The School Of Oriental And African Studies, 2006, Volume 69, No. 3, pp. 411-416.
[7] Y. Ragheb, “Les Premiers Documents Arabes De L’Ćre Musulmane”, Travaux Et MĆ©moires, 2013, Volume 17, pp. 679-726. For a list of dated 1st century AH inscriptions see F. Imbert, “LāIslam Des Pierres : LāExpression De La Foi Dans Les Graffiti Arabes Des Premiers SiĆØcles”, Revue Des Mondes Musulmans Et De La MĆ©diterranĆ©e, 2011, Volume 129, p. 61, footnote 3.
[8] F. C. de Blois, “TaŹ¾rikh” in P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel & W. P. Heinrichs (Eds.), The Encyclopaedia Of Islam (New Edition), 2000, E. J. Brill: Leiden, Volume X, p. 259. Also see “Hijra” in J. E. Campo & J. G. Melton (Series Ed.), Encyclopedia Of Islam, 2009, Facts On File, Inc.: New York (USA), p. 299; A. Dallal, “Calender” in J. D. McAuliffe (Ed.), Encyclopaedia Of The Qur’an, 2001, Volume I, Brill: Leiden, Boston, Kƶln, p. 273; H. Ioh, “The Calendar in Pre-Islamic Mecca”, Arabica, 2014, Volume 61, Issue 5, pp. 471-513.
[9] W. M. Watt & M. V. McDonald (Trans.), The History Of Al-į¹¬abarÄ«, 1988, Volume VI – Muįø„ammad at Mecca, State University of New York Press: New York, pp. 157-158.
[10] K. A. Worp, “Hegira Years In Greek, Greek-Coptic And Greek-Arabic Papyri”, Ćgyptus, 1985, Volume 65, Issue 1/2, pp. 107-115; R. S. Bagnall & K. A. Worp, Chronological Systems Of Byzantine Egypt, 2004, Second Edition, Koninklijke Brill NV: Leiden (The Netherlands), p. 300.
[11] S. Brock, “The Use Of Hijra Dating In Syriac Manuscripts: A Preliminary Investigation” in J. J. Van Ginkel, H. L. Murre-Van Den Berg, T. M. Van Lint (Eds.), Redefining Christian Identity: Cultural Interaction In The Middle East Since The Rise Of Islam, 2005, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta – 134, Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies: Leuven (Belgium), pp. 275-290.
[12] Y. Hirschfeld & G. Solar, “The Roman Thermae At Hammat Gader: Preliminary Report Of Three Seasons Of Excavations”, Israel Exploration Journal, 1981, Volume 31, pp. 203-205.; J. Green & Y. Tsafrir, “Greek Inscriptions From Hammat Gader: A Poem By The Empress Eudocia And Two Building Inscriptions”, Israel Exploration Journal, 1982, Volume 32, pp. 94-96; Y. Hirschfeld, The Roman Baths Of Hammat Gader (Final Report), 1997, Israel Exploration Society: Jerusalem, pp. 237-240; M. Sharon, Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, 2013, Volume V (H-I), Koninklijke Brill NV: Leiden (The Netherlands), pp. 284-286.
[13] Where they do not match, on occasion it seems to be a mistake on behalf of the scribe caused by a lack of familiarity with the hijra calendar (e.g., lunar not solar calendar).